brandyhwilliams. "in "mother to son" what is the extended metaphor?" enotes, 24 aug. 2015,

Introduction

Metaphor is understood every bit a tool of describing or viewing something abstruse, i.east., topic domain, in terms of something more physical, i.e., vehicle domain, in the practical linguistic tradition (Cameron, 2003; Depression et al., 2008; Deignan, 2017). Metaphor has been demonstrated to be pervasive in language generally, besides as in bookish writing specifically (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980; Ability and Carmichael, 2007; Herrmann, 2013; Littlemore et al., 2014; Hoang, 2015; Hoang and Boers, 2018; Nacey, 2020). Researchers discover that metaphor can be described as opportunities of achieving more expressive or pervasive power in argumentative writing for L2 learners with different linguistic communication backgrounds at different language levels, due east.g., Spanish (MacArthur, 2010), Norwegian (Nacey, 2013), German and Greek (Littlemore et al., 2014), and Thai (Hoang, 2015; Hoang and Boers, 2018). For example, MacArthur writes, "at that place are no 'right' or 'wrong' metaphors for among all the forces that drive semantic extension, the almost powerful is metaphor…" (MacArthur, 2010, p. 159). Littlemore et al. (2014, p. 120) suggest that "1 might wait development in the production of metaphor clusters in learners' writing at the different levels." An example of metaphor clustering in Littlemore et al.'s (2014) research is produced by an avant-garde German speaker of English language (hereafter, linguistic metaphors are underlined):

[…] your heath [health] will endure when y'all reath [reach] a higher historic period. An former auto doesn't run as smoothen equally a new ane. This will sooner or later reduce your quality of life.

Littlemore et al. (2014, p. 136) argue that "the learner is able to employ a artistic direct metaphor for humorous outcome, which makes their writing even more than persuasive, by comparing an sometime person with an old car." With the ethical approving granted by the ESSL, Environs and LUBS Kinesthesia Research Ethics Committee, University of Leeds (Surface area sixteen-160), artistic metaphor uses were observed which were produced by an intermediate Chinese learner of English in their writing assignment:

It's our duty to purify our standard language and maintain our culture purity. We should not employ Internet buzzwords without limit and make our language lose its own original appearance (Chen, a 2nd-yr Chinese university student studying in English language linguistic communication).

In this example, an extended analogy between the Chinese linguistic communication and human beings is summarized in a personification metaphor: LANGUAGE IS A PERSON. The learner draws multiple parallels between language and human beings, such as the metaphorically used words of "purity" and "appearance." Artistic direct metaphors or personification metaphors like these show learners' ability to "express themselves and to create meaning in a second language by means of metaphor" (Postma, 2015, p. 49), or learners' metaphoric competence in L2 (Birdsell, 2018).

The tendency for metaphors to extend or cluster at certain points in texts or soapbox has been noted past some metaphor researchers (Corts and Pollio, 1999; Corts and Meyers, 2002; Cameron, 2003; Koller, 2003; Cameron and Stelma, 2004; Corts, 2006; Semino, 2008; Kathpalia and Carmel, 2011; Krennmayr, 2011; Littlemore et al., 2014; Dorst, 2017; Sunday and Chen, 2018). The widespread and intriguing phenomenon where speakers or writers suddenly produce multiple metaphors in close proximity in texts or discourses has been defined as the design of metaphor clustering or metaphor clusters (Cameron and Stelma, 2004; Semino, 2008). Investigations on functions of metaphor clusters in spoken and written contexts, such as lectures (Corts and Pollio, 1999), sermons (Corts and Meyers, 2002), political speeches (Semino, 2008), news manufactures (Krennmayr, 2011), and business organisation magazines (Koller, 2003), observe that metaphor clusters occur at particularly significant points in texts or discourses and relate to a range of communicative functions. "Metaphor clusters are ofttimes used in strategic positions for rhetorical purposes" (Semino, 2008, p. 24). Kimmel summarizes three functions of metaphor clusters by reviewing prior studies on metaphor clusters in written texts: "(1) metaphor clusters are attention-grabbing and thus a relevance-producing device; (2) clusters seem to occur 'where the action is;' and (3) metaphor clusters connect and dynamize soapbox" (Kimmel, 2010, p. 98).

This article focuses on one type of metaphor cluster—extended metaphors, from which systematic relationships among related vehicle terms of linguistic metaphors can be identified out (Semino, 2008; Maslen, 2017). The extension of linguistic metaphors oftentimes involves "a unmarried metaphoric thought over a long stretch of language" (Denroche, 2018, p. 7), or systematic metaphors by establishing related vehicle terms (Cameron et al., 2010), such as the metaphoric thought Linguistic communication IS A PERSON^ane , established from the clustering of continued linguistic metaphors produced by Chen in a higher place. Discussions on the part of extended metaphors in texts and discourses have involved some metaphor scholars (due east.one thousand., Darian, 2000; Semino, 2008; Carter and Pitcher, 2010; Goatly, 2011; Naciscione, 2016; Thibodeau, 2017; Denroche, 2018). Semino (2008), Goatly (2011), and Thibodeau (2017) put the emphasis on the "text structuring" or organizing office of extended metaphors in texts and discuss the pervasive power of extended metaphors. Naciscione regards extended metaphors as a structure/pattern of figurative thought, which "helps to grade new creative instantiations in employ" (Naciscione, 2016, p. 243). Denroche (2018) also suggests that extended metaphors are likely to involve novel or creative metaphorical ideas. The link betwixt metaphoric thinking, inventiveness, and extended metaphors has been discussed in these studies. In the context of language teaching and learning, Darian (2000) argues that the use of extended figurative language is a way of metaphoric thinking, which is productive for students to talk over ideas in writing; and the use of direct metaphors is helpful to students in understanding complex ideas in science, such as those like shooting fish in a barrel-to-empathise direct analogies, simile forms, personifications, and animations in science texts. For instance, students could "retrieve of electricity as analogous to the flow of water" (Darian, 2000, p. 183). Carter and Pitcher (2010), inspired by the role of extended metaphors in the scaffolding learning in electronic subjects, explore how to use metaphors equally a pedagogical assist in helping students in thesis writing, by finding similarities and differences between the vehicle domain and the target domain.

As noted above, prior researchers tend to choose topic-based (argumentative) writing texts to investigate metaphor production in L2 (Chapetón, 2010; MacArthur, 2010; Nacey, 2013, 2017; Littlemore et al., 2014; Hoang, 2015; Gao, 2016), and to compare metaphor uses in native and non-native writing (Chapetón-Castro and Verdaguer-Clavera, 2012). Possible reasons are: first, belligerent writing topics are often abstract and reflective, which can "involve a substantial corporeality of metaphor" (Littlemore et al., 2014, p. 121), and "some topics may also trigger more metaphor than others" (Nacey, 2020, p. 296); second, "metaphors have been of import belligerent and rhetorical devices such as creating bright images and function as examples or organizing ideas behind a series of examples" (Klebanov and Flor, 2013, p. 11). Enquiry on metaphor and L2 topic-based writing has shown that learners have the need to use figurative language to limited complex and abstract ideas and will do then to fulfill chatty needs in L2 argumentative writing, such as the persuasive statement constructed by the German English learner's comparison between "an quondam person" and "an erstwhile car" (Littlemore et al., 2014), and the Chinese English learner's metaphorical comparing between "a brusque-sighted person" and "a frog in the well" when arguing near the importance of being knowledgeable and broad-minded (Xu and Tian, 2012). Post-obit the literature, it seems condom to conclude that as in many English as a 2d Language (ESL) contexts, argumentative writing is crucial for Chinese university students to succeed in loftier-stakes examinations (Liu and Stapleton, 2014; Abdollahzadeh et al., 2017) and extended metaphors are productive in driving semantic extension and organizing ideas when students are nether communication pressure (Darian, 2000; MacArthur, 2010).

This article explored the use of extended metaphors in L2 argumentative essays past Chinese academy students and students' thought reports behind some of their extended metaphor uses, given the fact that relatively petty is known about the use and function of extended metaphors in not-native English learners' belligerent writing; and about "whether or not a writer has deliberately used metaphor in this way or whether they have washed and so subconsciously" (Littlemore et al., 2014, p. 137). The term "extended metaphor" was used "when at least ii metaphorically used words belonging to different phrases depict the same topic domain in terms of the same vehicle domain" (Semino, 2008, p. 25). Here, terms of "topic" and "vehicle" are used for basic descriptive reporting (Depression et al., 2008; Maslen, 2017). Hyland's (1990) model of describing the rhetorical structure of an ESL argumentative essay was adopted which divides an ESL argumentative essay into three stages, with both obligatory and optional moves. Querol and Madrunio (2020, p. 65) write, "in most of the belligerent essays, the three stages with the obligatory moves were followed although some new moves were likewise identified." The three stages and moves at each stage are (Hyland, 1990, p. 69):

(1) Thesis phase: introduces the proffer to be argued Moves: (Gambit), (Information), Proposition, (Evaluation), (Marking)

(2) Argument stage: discusses grounds for thesis Moves: (Mark), (Restatement), Claim, Support

(3) Decision stage: synthesizes discussion and affirms the validity of the thesis Moves: (Marker), Consolidation, (Affirmation), (Close)

The moves in brackets show that these moves are optional instead of being obligatory to exist constitute in an L2 argumentative essay. The rationale is that Hyland (1990)'southward model offers detailed explanations of the structural units and corresponding functions (east.g., introduces the proposition to exist argued) in an L2 argumentative essay, which can function as a backup in locating the identified extended metaphors in an L2 argumentative essay then analyzing the intended rhetorical functions of extended metaphors. In line with the research on chatty functions of metaphors in academic texts or discourses (e.one thousand., Goatly, 2011; Herrmann, 2013), the investigation on what rhetorical functions that extended metaphors tin serve in dissimilar stages of an L2 argumentative essay, as well as in relation to each other, is also summarized by using Halliday and Matthiessen's (2004) framework of three metafunctions of language: ideational, interpersonal and textual. The focus of this electric current investigation is on identifying extended metaphors in Chinese English learners' argumentative texts, analyzing the communicative functions, and exploring learners' thinking processes backside their production of extended metaphors during the writing processes. This article may hopefully contribute to the growing body of knowledge almost learners' metaphoric competence in L2 by recognizing L2 learners' sensation and ability to create new and figurative meanings via extended metaphors, and to generate pedagogical implications in helping "students create their own, as opposed to text- or teacher-made, metaphors" (Darian, 2000, p. 184). While some researchers have used both text information and learner interviews to explore the influence of L1 and metaphoric thinking in L2 learners' metaphor product processes (e.m., Xu and Tian, 2012; Hoang, 2015; Wang and Wang, 2019), none has shifted the focus for the apply of extended metaphors in L2 writing and has had access to the writers talking about their thinking processes, or intentions, behind extended metaphor uses, and so no possibility of eliciting their understandings and awareness of using extended metaphors during the writing processes. This gap was attempted to be filled.

Three research questions are addressed in this article:

(ane) In what ways do Chinese learners of English language use extended metaphors in their L2 argumentative essays?

(ii) What are the communicative functions of extended metaphors when intertwined with the strategic moves and stages of an L2 argumentative essay?

(3) How exercise Chinese learners of English report their thinking processes behind extended metaphor uses during their writing processes?

Materials and Methods

Identifying Extended Metaphors and Establishing Systematic Metaphors

To respond the showtime two research questions, 72 belligerent writing samples were collected which were produced by 37 intermediate Chinese English majors in March and April 2018, on the abstruse writing themes of Spend and Salvage and Campus Love. The second semester of each academic year in Chinese universities usually starts in March. In this semester, the learning objective of the writing module studied past the participants was argumentative writing. The participants also needed to practice argumentative writing as part of the preparation for their TEM-four examination (a national English linguistic communication proficiency exam for 2nd-year English language majors on the third Sabbatum of April every twelvemonth in mainland Prc). This enabled a collection of accurate writing samples in a natural and principled way, without imposing additional work on both teachers and students. The linguistic metaphors were identified out past following the MIP ("metaphor identification process") (Pragglejaz Group., 2007). The core principle of MIP is to compare the more than abstruse contextual meaning of a lexical unit with a more than "basic" or concrete meaning in other contexts and look for a relation of comparison. Online versions of Macmillan Dictionary (Macmillan Education, London) and Oxford English language Dictionary (Oxford English Printing, Academy of Oxford) were consulted to establish the basic pregnant and contextual pregnant of each lexical unit and to minimize subjectivity in doing so. Following MIP, metaphor, metonymy, and simile were included as metaphorical when there were metaphor-related meanings. Then, the focus was turned to the identification of extended metaphors. As noted to a higher place, the extension of linguistic metaphors involves "at least ii metaphorically used words belonging to unlike phrases describe the same target (topic) domain in terms of the aforementioned source (vehicle) domain (Semino, 2008, p. 25).

An example of extended metaphor is given in Excerpt 1, which is taken from i of the participants' writing samples on the topic "The Reasons for College Students to Learn to Budget Their Money":

Excerpt ane Once we want to waste matter money, the beasts of desire in our chests are awakened, they yell and postage their anxiety, trying to control our mind.

(Deng, writing assignment submitted on 21/03/2018)

The linguistic metaphors were underlined which were identified past following the MIP (Pragglejaz Group., 2007). The participant (Deng) used the clustering of connected linguistic metaphors and directly compared the desire to waste matter coin as a horrible beast that can be awakened and crusade a physical fight, violently threatening life. To avoid overgeneralization near writers' conceptualization and intention in belligerent writing, Cameron and Maslen's (2010) applied linguistic approach was followed to identify groupings that they term "systematic metaphors" past establishing "vehicle groupings" from collected linguistic metaphors in the discourse activity. The bottom-up arroyo of establishing systematic metaphors from extended metaphors is not the same as the generalization of conceptual metaphors in the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT). The latter has been problematic for metaphor inquiry focusing on naturally occurring data in context because of its use of invented linguistic evidence and its pinnacle-down approach of plain preselecting conceptual metaphors and so tracking for evidence of their realizations at the linguistic level (Cameron, 2010; Deignan, 2010). From finding systematic metaphors from semantically connected metaphor vehicles, researchers aim to "draw inferences about their [participants'] thoughts and feelings, their [participants'] conceptualizations and communicative intentions, from the language they [participants] used then" (Maslen, 2017, p. 89). The "systematic metaphors" termed past Cameron et al. (2010) resemble the conceptual metaphors suggested by the CMT, "merely they should not be seen as equivalent" (Deignan et al., 2013, p. ix). In this article, systematic metaphors were then established by following Cameron et al. (2010) practice of group metaphor vehicles past using the Excel software (Microsoft, U.s.a.). The semantics of the basic meaning of the metaphor vehicles were used equally the starting point to generalize grouping labels (see Effigy 1).

Figure 1. Possible groupings of metaphor vehicles in Extract 1.

In Figure 1, "linguistic metaphors were gathered together in a list and then were grouped and organized according to the basic meanings of the vehicle terms" (Cameron, 2010, p. 12). The grouping labeled BODILY Activeness included the linguistic metaphors "awakened," "yell" and "stamp" in Extract i. The grouping labeled BEAST was first generalized from the explicit metaphorical expression "the beasts of desire" and then was further grouped into Dangerous ANIMAL in terms of the basic pregnant of "creature": "an animal, peculiarly a dangerous or strange one," according to online Macmillan Dictionary. So, at the very beginning, the "labels for groupings were frequently taken from the actual words that appear in the written data" (Cameron et al., 2010, p. 119) and the words that appear in the bones meanings of metaphor vehicles. This process "contracts with Conceptual Metaphor Theory which aims to generalize labels as much as possible in social club to posit universals in human conceptualizing" (Cameron et al., 2010, p. 119). The second possible group labeled VIOLENT ACTION was one of the two subdivisions of the Concrete Activity grouping. The Physical Action metaphor vehicles tin can be further divided into PHYSICAL Activeness and Trigger-happy Action in terms of "those actions which are neutral and those which express an chemical element of violence" (Cameron et al., 2010, p. 123). Based on the firsthand text context in Extract one, and the basic meanings of collected metaphor vehicles — "beasts," "yell" and "stamp," the grouping labeled CONTROL was further generalized as VIOLENT ACTION. The grouping PARTS OF THE BODY was quickly built by referring to both the basic meaning of "feet" and the grouping PARTS OF THE BODY in Cameron and Maslen'due south (2010) work. "A systematic metaphor is a set up of linguistic metaphors in which connected vehicle words are used metaphorically about a particular topic" (Cameron et al., 2010, p. 127). It was easy to find the topics based on the firsthand writing contexts and the writing themes in collected text information. For instance, in the DANGEROUS ANIMAL grouping in Figure 1, a subset of metaphor vehicles that were used to talk about the desire of wasting coin were continued and grouped together as the systematic metaphor: DESIRE OF WASTING MONEY IS A Unsafe Beast WITH Tearing BODILY ACTION.

The bottom-up procedure of finding systematic metaphors from vehicle groupings generalized in extended stretches of written texts focuses on what the chatty intentions or goals are when the participants used extended metaphors at some strategic moves and stages in L2 argumentative texts (Deignan et al., 2013; Deignan, 2017). Systematic metaphors established from the extended metaphors identified in writing samples serve both as evidence for ideas, attitudes, and values which may non exist direct expressed in the texts, and every bit a starting indicate for the farther exploration of functions of metaphor clusters (Cameron et al., 2010, p. 116). Equally mentioned above, Hyland'south (1990) model of describing the rhetorical structure of an ESL argumentative essay and Halliday and Matthiessen's (2004) framework of iii metafunctions of linguistic communication: ideational, interpersonal, and textual, are the theoretical guide. In the example analysis of Extract 1, the textual part of extended metaphors, such as "creating internal coherence" (Koller, 2003, p. 120), can be realized by the connected metaphor vehicles that can exist summarized by the metaphorical thought—"beasts of desire" at the statement stage of the writing sample (Cameron and Low, 2004). The new representations of the want of wasting money in terms of a dangerous creature are evidence of the ideational functions of extended metaphors (Corts and Pollio, 1999; Goatly, 2011; Kathpalia and Carmel, 2011) in the move of making a claim. The systematic metaphor Want OF WASTING Money IS A Dangerous ANIMAL WITH VIOLENT BODILY ACTION not but contributes to building a coherent argument (textual part) but also a persuasive one (interpersonal office) at the argument phase of Deng'southward writing sample. The BEAST metaphor is used to describe offense in Thibodeau and Boroditsky's (2011) research, and the participant creatively extends the BEAST metaphor when arguing nigh the reasons and importance of saving money. In Extract one, the systematic metaphor highlights the negative elements and deemphasize the positive ones contained in the topic domain Desire OF WASTING MONEY (Thibodeau, 2017), to touch readers' concerns and beliefs and to persuade them to take specific actions (interpersonal function) (Hyland, 1990; Cameron and Maslen, 2010; Paquot, 2010; Goatly, 2011; Littlemore et al., 2014; Yang et al., 2014; Thibodeau, 2017).

Stimulated Think Interviews

"Stimulated think methodology can exist viewed as a subset of introspective inquiry methods which help the researchers to accesses, examine and understand participant'south reflections on mental processes" (Gazdag et al., 2016, p. 119; Play tricks-Turnbull, 2011, p. 205). Prior research has demonstrated that "stimulated remember methodology can be used to prompt participants to recall thoughts they had while performing a task or participating in an effect" (Gass and Mackey, 2000, p. 13; Mackey and Gass, 2005; Henderson et al., 2010; Play a joke on-Turnbull, 2011; Ryan and Gass, 2012; Gazdag et al., 2016; Gass and Mackey, 2017). The application of stimulated recall methodology to L2 research has been extended from investigating classroom practices and interactions similar videotaped lectures or discussions to exploring participants' mental processes in events similar reading and writing (Gass and Mackey, 2017). Hoang (2015) used keystroke data generated past the Input-Log plan together with the stimulated call up interviews to explore how Vietnam learners of English language explained their metaphors used in their in-class compositions based on an elicitation writing task prepared past the researcher. Hoang (2015) used the stimulated call up interviews, with well-prepared interview protocol and instructions for both researcher and the students, to reveal the underlying factors that may straight link to the development of metaphorical units in students' topic-based writing, by transcribing and categorizing the participants' comments. The three outstanding categories in her participants' comments on metaphor uses were "the employ of images, groundwork knowledge, and novel metaphors" (Hoang, 2015, pp. 97–98). Equally Wang and Cheng (2016) advise, "probing factors behind learners' metaphoric creativity can thus enrich teachers' noesis of how to develop learners' ability to use L2 metaphorically, preparing them to participate in actual social advice" (Wang and Cheng, 2016, p. 205). Extended metaphors in texts or discourses are often linked with novel or creative metaphorical ideas and intended communicative purposes (Denroche, 2018). By now, the investigation of extended metaphors and metaphoric creativity in Chinese English learners' L2 argumentative writing, and the examination of possible factors underlying L2 learners' metaphor use in writing still seems to be an under-researched area. To answer the third research question and to contribute cognition of learners' understanding of their writing process in terms of extended metaphor utilise, stimulated recall interviews were conducted. Each individual interview (around 30 min) was conducted within 2 days of the submission of the related writing sample to maximize the call up accuracy. The stimulated recall methodology was piloted with v of targeted participants at the very beginning of the data drove procedure. The aim of this was to decrease the corporeality of unnecessary data in the interviews and help the participants to focus on the recalling process. The audio-recorded interview data was manually transcribed and and then translated from Chinese into English language post-obit strict conventions (Richards, 2003, pp. 80–81; Watanabe and Swain, 2007, p. 140; Bailey, 2008, p. 131). Supporting prove of possible intended functions of learners' extended metaphor uses is also hoping to be establish in the stimulated think interview information. Participants were asked two key interview questions: (1) When writing words or phrases similar this, what were you thinking almost or how did you perceive it? (2) Why did you lot employ this/these particular word/words or phrases, what were yous thinking well-nigh then?

An interview extract from the interview with Deng, the writer of Excerpt i, is given below:

Researcher: Yeah, you used "One time we want to waste money," you lot wrote, "the beasts of desire in our chest are awakened," so why you lot expressed similar this at that item time?

Deng: I wanted to be more vivid. I just wanted to stress again that our desire, the importance of decision-making that kind of desire. Because what I wanted to say was that want was like a dreadful monster. If information technology were awakened, you would exist out of control.

From Deng's self-reports, her witting reflection on her desire to make the writing more vivid and her metaphoric thinking of "desire" every bit "a dreadful monster" at the time of writing accept been clearly and confidently verbalized. By emphasizing the negative effect of non controlling desire well, Deng's metaphorical extension of the BEAST metaphor could support her viewpoint and argument and reinforce the persuasive nature of the argumentative essay. The stimulated recall method has been able to generate interesting insights when efforts have been made to ensure that the authentic recollect has been taken place, which may back up the function analysis of the systematic metaphors established from the extended metaphors involving single metaphorical ideas, e.g., the pervasive power of DESIRE OF WASTING MONEY IS A Dangerous ANIMAL WITH VIOLENT ACTION metaphor established from Deng's writing sample. The study hoped to draw teachers' attention to learners' conscious uses of extended metaphors in belligerent texts and to enrich teachers' cognition of metaphors in developing learners' metaphoric competence in L2.

Findings

Extended Metaphors and Communicative Functions

In total, I identified 11 single extended stretches from the written texts produced by 9 writers, including Extract 1 illustrated above for sit-in purposes, from which xi systematic metaphors were established (see Table ane). The underlined metaphor vehicles are linguistic metaphors extended in unmarried metaphorical ideas.

Tabular array 1. Examples of extended metaphors and systematic metaphors.

During the process of establishing systematic metaphors, there were situations where ane metaphor vehicle could be grouped into different vehicle groupings. Collaborative decisions were fabricated to grouping one metaphor vehicle into ane most appropriate vehicle grouping for the ease of categorization (Cameron et al., 2010). The metaphor vehicles "petrol" and "bombardment" in Extract two, on the topic "More than Than Dear," for instance:

Extract 2 Basically, love is the invisible power. It has the driving force which can encourage people to achieve some goals. […] love is like the petrol to a car, the battery to a player.

(Li Y., writing assignment submitted on 28/03/2018)

first were grouped equally ENERGY because of the words like "fuel" and "electricity" in the basic meanings of metaphor vehicles, based on the online Macmillan Dictionary. Subsequently regular discussion with co-rater who has a professional groundwork in metaphor research, the grouping was and then recorded and broadened to VEHICLE by including metaphorically used words—"car" and "player" representing vehicles and machines in the physical earth. Equally noted above, the metaphor vehicle "control" in Extract 1 was grouped as VIOLENT ACTION by following Cameron and Maslen'south (2010) 2 subdivisions of the PHYSICAL Activity grouping. The rationale is that the context of the BEAST metaphor may convey a sense of violence. Borderline cases about the metaphor vehicle "control," which can be grouped into Vehement Activeness or PHYSICAL ACTION depending on writing contexts were agreed upon afterwards give-and-take. The bilingual background of the co-rater and the writer, and their familiarity with Chinese intermediate English language learners' argumentative writing were helpful in capturing accurate generalizations of the metaphor vehicles and the corresponding topics to which participants had written. The trustworthiness of vehicle groupings can be maximized by "keeping with the 'principled flexibility' that has informed the procedure throughout" (Cameron et al., 2010, p. 126). Past regular discussions with co-rater throughout the metaphor identification and metaphor analysis processes, the systematic metaphor proposed from the extended metaphorical stretch in Extract 2 is: LOVE IS PHYSICAL Force DRIVING VEHICLES/MACHINES.

Similar the functional analysis of the BEAST metaphor noted above, the systematic metaphor LOVE IS Concrete FORCE DRIVING VEHICLES AND MACHINES could contribute to edifice a coherent statement (textual office) merely also a persuasive one (interpersonal part) at the argument stage of the writing text. The educatee creatively used novel metaphors to increment comprehensibility and to highlight the positive role of campus honey as PHYSICAL Strength/Strength (ideational function), which were possible attempts made to persuade the readership to take the writer's viewpoint (interpersonal function). More examples of functional analysis of the identified extended metaphors listed in Table i are given (meet Figures two–5).

Effigy 2. Extended metaphor contributing to the VEHICLE systematic metaphor.

Figure iii. Extended metaphor contributing to the SAVING Money IS RESERVING WEAPONS systematic metaphor.

Figure iv. Extended metaphor contributing to the Fire systematic metaphor.

Figure 5. Extended metaphor contributing to the Nutrient systematic metaphor.

In Figure 2, spending (topic domain) is described every bit a vehicle (vehicle domain) via iv metaphorically used words in the gambit move of the thesis stage and the closing movement of the conclusion stage in Wang'south writing text. This extension coincides with the gambit motility in an belligerent essay where the author's purpose is to "capture the readers' attention, rather than inform" (Hyland, 1990, p. 70) by fashion of dramatic illustration at the very start of the writing text. These linguistic metaphors are related to a vehicle that can move forward. A systematic metaphor SPENDING IS A VEHICLE can be formulated, offering the topic of spending a new representation and the text'due south internal coherence. SPENDING IS A VEHICLE used when introducing viewpoints on the positive side of spending tin convey a writer'south positive attitude toward spending and and so construct the evaluative role of metaphor (Goatly, 2011). Attempts independent in this systematic metaphor, such every bit dramatic illustration, coherence construction, and evaluation, tin be related to the three dimensions of functions of language: ideational, interpersonal, and textual.

In Figure 3, linguistic metaphors "war," "storage [store]," and "bullets" are used creatively to talk nearly the topic of money (topic domain) in terms of weapon (vehicle domain), at the conclusion stage of Zhang'southward writing text. The words in square brackets are some grammatical mistakes corrected by the researcher with participants' understanding. Bullets tin exist supplied or reserved and used for war. A artistic systematic metaphor, therefore, is formulated: SAVING MONEY IS RESERVING WEAPONS. The ideational, interpersonal, and textual function of this systematic metaphor is intertwined with the rhetorical goal of the conclusion stage, which is to summarize the argument section persuasively, to provide a prospective focus for word, and to achieve vivid consolidation (Hyland, 1990; Querol and Madrunio, 2020). It seems that the conventional metaphoric idea LIFE IS WAR is compatible with the creative systematic metaphor SAVING MONEY IS RESERVING WEAPONS concerning the connection between war and weapons.

In Figure 4, the conventional systematic metaphor Dear IS FIRE built from the metaphorical extension at the conclusion phase in Lou's writing text besides tin help to realize the persuasive ability in the writing text in a coherent and dramatic fashion.

In Figure v, love (topic domain) is described as food (vehicle domain) via three different linguistic metaphors ("hungry," "food," "dessert") within the same text. The connection among these linguistic metaphors could be reflected in the metaphor flag "simply like." Here, this subset of metaphor vehicles, consisting of extended metaphor, is used to talk well-nigh love, and tin can exist expressed through the systematic metaphor: Dearest IS FOOD Begetting PLEASANT FEELINGS. The conventional concepts LOVE IS FOOD or Honey IS SWEET Food are lexicalized by the creative and maybe deliberate comparisons betwixt "pursuing dearest" and "finding nutrient," and between "love" and "dessert." The linguistic metaphors "hungry" and "food" at the thesis stage give a focus to Guo'southward proposition, and "dessert," "warm," and "happy" at the argument stage reinforce his claim (Hyland, 1990). So, clusters that include extended metaphors at unlike moves and stages could requite internal coherence to an argumentative text, which is the textual function of extended metaphors. Guo's creative apply of these similes highlights the positive side of love, which conveys evaluative and persuasive ability, i.e., interpersonal function.

The bottom-up assay of systematic metaphors shows extended metaphors are often found to build coherent and persuasive arguments in learners' written texts. Amidst the 11 instances of systematic metaphors, seven occurred at the argument phase, one at both thesis stage and argument stage, one at both thesis stage and conclusion stage, and two at the decision stage. The SPENDING IS A VEHICLE metaphor is establish at both the thesis and decision stage in Wang's writing sample, contributing to the textual structuring function and ideational function simultaneously. The two systematic metaphors congenital at the conclusion stage of the writing samples can be sensed as deliberate and creative considering of similes. The systematic metaphor LOVE IS FIRE in the close motion in Lou's text reinforces the evaluative and persuasive power. The systematic metaphor SAVING Coin IS RESERVING WEAPON at the decision phase in Zhang's text conveys the writer'due south stiff emotions toward the importance of saving coin, which might encourage a alter of perspective. The Desire OF WASTING MONEY IS A Dangerous ANIMAL WITH Trigger-happy ACTION metaphor and LOVE IS PHYSICAL FORCE DRIVING VEHICLES/MACHINES metaphor established from the argument stages likewise contribute to the structure of coherent and persuasive arguments. The function analysis focusing on extension and systematicity generates insights on how Chinese learners of English utilise extended metaphors at strategic points in their argumentative essays, and for what communicative purposes. More than supporting show on learners' intentions and chatty purposes are obtained from the follow-up stimulated recall interviews.

Learners' Thought Reports in Stimulated Recollect Comments

Not all extended metaphors identified are able to exist asked in the stimulated recall interviews considering of the time limitation and ethical considerations. Due to the difficulty of finding a time to interview students within two days of the writing tasks, four extended stretches listed in Table 1 (including Extract i explained to a higher place for sit-in purpose), written by four unlike participants, were able to exist asked in the stimulated recollect interviews. The four participants were interviewed individually in a contiguous mode during their complimentary time. Two interviews were on Spend and Save and two on Campus Love. All interviews were voluntary and did non cause extra workload to both teachers and students involved in this nowadays investigation. Table two presents participants' thought reports cited in their recall comments.

Table ii. Extended stretches and corresponding remember comments.

At this stage, the focus was on what the participants said about their choice of metaphorical expressions that were identified as extended metaphors. The participants were non told whether a stretch of written texts had been classified as a metaphorical extension before or during the interview processes. Each student was interviewed no more than one time. The opening coding approach, on a line-by-line basis (Richards, 2003), enabled to constantly comparing the similarities and differences among learners' comments on their metaphor use at the fourth dimension of writing when coding recall data. Hither, "a code ascribes significant to the coded text" (Jamieson, 2016, p. 8). So, the explanations and idea reports that are similar at the conceptual level could be grouped into themes or categories by breaking downwards the interview data for the analytical purpose (Corbin and Strauss, 1990; Chapman et al., 2015). As demonstrated above, information technology was observed that learners were willing to talk over their language uses with me. Learners also reported on their conscious or deliberate metaphor uses at the fourth dimension of writing. Tabular array iii illustrates the four categories of reasons that were identified for learners' extended metaphor uses.

Table 3. Grouping codes into themes.

Based on the interview data, the four reasons explaining when and why learners' produce extended metaphors are: (1) learners' metaphoric thinking; (2) communicative functions of metaphor in bookish writing (ideational, interpersonal, and textual); (three) L1 influence; (4) learners' limited L2 knowledge and desire for a improve writing operation in L2. It seemed that more than than one reason was cited apropos each of the extended metaphor utilize identified and asked in this nowadays investigation, which shows participants' ability, or efforts made, to think, write, and persuade metaphorically and creatively in English, i.e., learners' metaphoric competence in L2. In the post-obit department, the findings obtained from learners' writing samples and stimulated recall interviews were discussed.

Give-and-take of Findings

Findings obtained from the written texts data indicate that extended metaphors can exist found at unlike strategic points in Chinese English learners' argumentative essays. Functions of extended metaphors are analyzed past taking the strategic moves and stages of an L2 belligerent essay (Hyland, 1990) into consideration. Like what Koller (2003) has found past analyzing metaphor clusters in mag texts on marketing, information technology has been constitute that extended metaphors in the mid-texts, i.due east., the argument stages, oft serve the interpersonal role, such as developing persuasive arguments. The extended metaphors at the thesis stages, and at the concluding stages of participants' argumentative texts, oft occur on smaller scales compared to those in the heart parts. The bottom-upwardly assay of systematic metaphors built from extended metaphors indicates that communicative functions of extended metaphors at the start of written texts often coincide with the rhetorical aims of the thesis phase, such as achieving a dramatic illustration and attracting the readership'southward attention, which are the ideational and interpersonal function. Extended metaphors at the terminate of texts can assist learners to reinforce the proposition by "providing a prospective focus and widening the context" (Hyland, 1990, p. 74). Learners tin can "drive the betoken home to the readership" (Koller, 2003, p. 120) and attain persuasive power.

Some examples of extended metaphors which appear to be deliberate were also observed. More than i systematic and metaphoric thought can be found inside the same text. For instance, in Lou'south writing sample, the systematic metaphor LOVE IS ILLNESS can be established from the extended metaphors used at the argument stage for presenting and supporting standpoints. The systematic metaphor Beloved IS Burn down tin be congenital from the determination stage to reinforce the fundamental viewpoint and widen the context for evaluation and persuasion. This indicates that Lou could deploy and develop different vehicle terms and metaphoric ideas to talk about the topic domain at different stages of the text, with stronger emotions and persuasive power. The Love IS FOOD metaphor across the thesis and argument stages of Guo's writing sample could also testify a degree of learners' conceptual fluency and metaphoric competence in L2 English (Danesi, 1992). Unlike systematic metaphors built from different extended texts evidence learners' ability to facilitate change in perspectives on part of the readership, by directing the readership's attention and understanding to a dissimilar area of experience (Deignan et al., 2013). The function assay of extended metaphors, past establishing systematic metaphors, provides more than evidence about learners' metaphoric competence in L2, at both conceptual and linguistic levels of metaphor (Littlemore, 2010; Nacey, 2013).

The stimulated retrieve interviews enabled to talk to learners and know more than about their intentions and purposes in terms of their choice of some metaphorical extensions. Learners' thought reports cited in their recall comments advise that they are confident about their give-and-take choices during their writing processes, no affair whether the words and expressions are deliberately used to be metaphorical or not. Learners are able to study clearly about the efforts they accept made to express their meanings during the writing, such as directly applying the metaphorical comparing from L1 to L2 and consciously thinking metaphorically in L1. Learners likewise report their want for vividness, better comprehensibility, and persuasive power, apropos some extended metaphor uses, which supports the function analysis of extended metaphors and learners' metaphoric competence in L2. The stimulated recall methodology has its limitations, only it is believed to be enough for this nowadays investigation to ask learners in a face-to-confront manner to know more about their thinking processes behind their use of extended metaphors in L2 argumentative texts. Useful pedagogical implications can exist obtained. For instance, there are situations where learners may consciously decide to use extended metaphors to persuade through metaphorical constructions. Now that evidence has shown that both conventional and creative extended metaphors are inevitable for learners to run across various chatty needs in writing, information technology is necessary for teachers to realize this, recognize this as not an capricious phenomenon but a fashion of thinking and communication, and offer respective feedback in developing learners' metaphoric and communicative competence in L2. The interesting insights obtained from the analysis of stimulated recall interview data can first the limitations of the stimulated remember methodology.

Learners' thought reports cited in some call back comments may also provide supporting evidence to the possible presence of certain metaphorical ideas in L1 or L2, such as "want was similar a dreadful monster" (Deng) and "love is a forcefulness that can move things forward" (Li Y.), in the writers' minds when they wrote extended metaphors. This may contribute to, every bit Littlemore (2009) suggests, the implications of CMT in second linguistic communication teaching and learning. L1 influence on L2 metaphor production is non "simply lexical interference from the L1, or equally the result of a cognition gap in the use of L2 idiomatic language" (Danesi, 2016), but also may exist the result of conceptual transfers from L1 to L2 (Nacey, 2013).

Conclusion

This present investigation is a relatively small-scale study. The collected text information and interview data may non represent all Chinese university students' use, office, and agreement of extended metaphors in L2 argumentative writing. However, limitations similar these are less important compared to the findings and insights gained from the textual analysis and interview analysis. The findings from this present investigation show that Chinese learners of English have been able to refer to some metaphorical concepts in their L1 to produce conventional and artistic extended metaphors in L2 argumentative texts for achieving various communicative purposes, such as the desire for vividness, for more comprehensible meaning, coherence, and for supporting viewpoints and persuading. Findings from the interview data likewise show that learners may develop metaphorical extensions deliberately, by consciously thinking metaphor in L1 and writing creative direct metaphors under sure communication pressure. Merely participants' ability to write metaphorically in their targeted language, and sometimes to report metaphorically about their writing processes, are still not recognized every bit a crucial power to be developed in their L2 classrooms. Littlemore and Low write, "command over metaphor is one of the essential tools for empowering learners to cope successfully with native speakers" (Littlemore and Low, 2006b, p. 22). It is reasonable to constantly draw both teachers', learners', and policy makers' attention to the exposure of metaphor cognition in L2 classrooms at the tertiary level (Shirazi and Talebinezhad, 2013), and pay more attention to learners' metaphor production in L2 (Hoang, 2015). The reinforcement of metaphor awareness, metaphoric/creative thinking, and cross-cultural sensation is essential in developing Chinese English learners' metaphoric competence and overall communicative competence in L2.

Information Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the commodity/supplementary material, further inquiries tin exist directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics Argument

The studies involving homo participants were reviewed and approved by the ESSL, Environment and LUBS Kinesthesia Enquiry Ethics Committee, Academy of Leeds (Surface area 16-160). The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this report.

Writer Contributions

QL contributed to the formulation and design of the study, conducted data drove, performed the analysis and estimation of both text and interview information, wrote the commencement draft, and fabricated the revisions and approved the publication of this article.

Funding

This work was supported past the joint scholarship of the Prc Scholarship Quango and the Academy of Leeds nether Grant No. CSC201606290040 and the Inquiry Offset-Upward Funding from the Yangtze University under Grant No. 8021002902.

Conflict of Interest

The writer declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential disharmonize of interest.

Publisher's Annotation

All claims expressed in this commodity are solely those of the authors and practice not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

The writer would like to extend special gratitude to Alice Deignan and Lou Harvey from the School of Education, University of Leeds, for their valuable comments on the before drafts of Ph.D. thesis part of which developed into this commodity. The gratitude is also extended to Dongman Cai for the co-rating piece of work in metaphor identification and vehicle coding.

Footnotes

1. ^ In this article, "systematic metaphors are written in SMALL ITALIC CAPITALS (east.chiliad., Language IS A PERSON) to distinguish them from conceptual metaphors (e.g., LOVE IS A Journeying), which are written in SMALL CAPITALS" (Cameron et al., 2010, p. 117).

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